Coping Strategies, Multidimensional Competitive Anxiety And Cognitive Threat Appraisal: Differences Across Sex, Age And Type Of Sport

Authors

Cruz José Fernando, School of Psychology, University of Minho
Dias Cláudia, Faculty of Sport, University of Porto
Fonseca António Manuel, Faculty of Sport, University of Porto

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to examine the levels of anxiety, threat perception, and the coping strategies used by Portuguese athletes, and to assess differences between athletes of different sexes, ages and sports. In this investigation there were 550 male and female participating athletes, aged between 15 and 35 years (19.8 ± 4.5), representing several individual and team sports. Subjects filled out the Portuguese versions of the Sport Anxiety Scale [34] and of the Brief COPE [4], as well as the Cognitive Appraisal Scale in Sport Competition – Threat Perception [9]. The results showed that all athletes experienced anxiety and threat perception, and used varied coping strategies, with a preference for adaptative strategies. Female athletes displayed higher levels of anxiety and threat perception, in addition to a greater use of diverse emotion- and problem-focused coping strategies; male athletes reported a greater substance abuse. Younger athletes seemed to use less efficacious coping strategies, and athletes from individual sports reported higher levels of anxiety, threat perception and venting of emotions; athletes from team sports reported a greater use of humor and substances.

Keywords

Coping, anxiety, gender, age, type of sport

Download full article

References

Anshel, M. H. (1996). Coping styles among adolescent competitive athletes. Journal of Social Psychology, 136, 311-323.
Anshel, M. H., Williams, L. R. T., & Hodge, K. (1997). Cross-cultural and gender differences on coping style in sport. International Journal of Sport Psychology, 28, 141-156.
Barbosa, L. G., & Cruz, J. F. (1997). Stress, ansiedade e estratégias de confronto psicológico no andebol de alta competição. Psicologia: Teoria, Investigação e Prática, 2, 523-548.
Carver, C. S. (1997). You want to measure coping but your protocol’s too long: Consider the Brief Cope. International Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 4(1), 92-100.
Carver, C. S., Scheier, M. F., & Weintraub, J. K. (1989). Assessing coping strategies: A theoretically based approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56, 267-283.
Compas, B. E. (1987). Coping with stress during childhood and adolescence. Psychological Bulletin, 101(3), 393-403.
Compas, B. E., Melcarne, V. L., & Banez, G. A. (1992). Coping with psychosocial stress: A developmental perspective. In Carpenter, B. N. (Ed.). Personal coping: Theory, research, and application. Westpor, CT: Praeger/ Greenwood, 47–63.
Crocker, P. R., & Graham, T. R. (1995). Coping by competitive athletes with performance stress: Gender differences and relationships with affect. Sport Psychology, 9, 325-338.
Cruz, J. F. (1997). Stress, ansiedade e competências psicológicas em atletas de elite e de alta competição: Relação com o sucesso desportivo. In Cruz, J., & Gomes, A. R. (Eds.). Psicologia Aplicada ao Desporto e à Actividade Física: Teoria, Investigação e Intervenção, Braga (Portugal): University of Minho and Portuguese Psychologists Association. p. 111-140.
Cruz, J. F. (2003). Brief Copep. Unpublished manuscript. Braga, (Portugal): University of Minho.
Cruz, J. F., & Viana, M. F. (1997). Escala de Ansiedade do Desporto: Características e validade da adaptação portuguesa. In Cruz, J., & Gomes, A. R. (Eds.). Psicologia Aplicada ao Desporto e à Actividade Física: Teoria, Investigação e Intervenção, Braga (Portugal): University of Minho and Portuguese Psychologists Association. p. 349-365.
Dale, G. A. (2000). Distractions and coping strategies of elite decathletes during their most memorable performances. Sport Psychology, 14, 17-41.
Dugdale, J. R., Eklund, R. C., & Gordon, S. (2002). Expected and unexpected stressors in major international competition: Appraisal, coping, and performance. Sport Psychology, 16, 20-33.
Dunn, J. G., & Nielsen, A. B. (1993). A between-sport comparison of situational threat perceptions in ice hockey and soccer. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 15, 449-465.
Folkman, S., Lazarus, R. S., Dunkel-Schetter, C., DeLongis, A., & Gruen, R. (1986). Dynamics of a stressful encounter: Cognitive appraisal, coping, and encounter outcomes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50, 992-1003.
Folkman, S., Lazarus, R. S., Pimley, S., & Novacek, J. (1987). Age differences in stress and coping process. Psychology and Aging, 2(2), 171-184.
Gould, D., Eklund, R. C., & Jackson, S. A. (1993). Coping strategies used by U.S. Olympic wrestlers. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 64, 83-93.
Gould, D., Finch, L. M., & Jackson, S. A. (1993). Coping strategies used by national champion figure skaters. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 64, 453-468.
Gould, D., Horn, T., & Spreemann, J. (1983). Sources of stress in junior elite wrestlers. Journal of Sport Psychology, 5, 159-171.
Hammermeister, J., & Burton, D. (2001). Stress, appraisal, and coping revisited: Examining the antecedents of competitive state anxiety with endurance athletes. Sport Psychology, 15, 66-90.
Holt, N. L., & Hogg, J. M. (2002). Perceptions of stress and coping during preparation for the 1999 women’s soccer world cup finals. Sport Psychology, 16, 251-271.
Hudek-Knežević, J., Kardum, I., & Vukmirović, Ž. (1999). The structure of coping styles: A comparative study of Croatian samples. European Journal of Personality, 13, 149-161.
Lazarus, R. S. (2000). How emotions influence performance in competitive sports. Sport Psychology, 14, 229-252.
Lazarus, R. S., & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, appraisal and coping. New York, NY, USA: Springer.
Madden, C. C., Kirkby, R. J., & McDonald, D. (1989). Coping styles of competitive middle distance runners. International Journal of Sport Psychology, 20, 287-296.
Nicholls, A., Holt N., Polman, R., & James, D. (2005). Stress and coping among international adolescent golfers. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 17(4), 333-340.
Nicholls, A., Holt N., Polman, R., & Bloomfield, J. (2006). Stressors, coping, and coping effectiveness among professional rugby union players. Sport Psychology, 20, 314-329.
Ntoumanis, N., & Biddle, S. J. H. (1998). The relationship of coping and its perceived effectiveness to positive and negative affect in sport. Personality and Individual Differences, 24(6), 773-788.
Pedhazur, E. J. (1982). Multiple regression in behavioral research. New York, NY, USA: Holt, Rhinehart, & Winston.
Pensgaard, A. M., & Roberts, G. C. (2003). Achievement goal orientations and the use of coping strategies among Winter Olympians. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 4, 101-116.
Ptacek, J. T., Smith, R. E., & Zanas, J. (1992). Gender, appraisal, and coping: A longitudinal analysis. Journal of Personality, 60, 747-770.
Rodrigues, R., & Cruz, J. F. (1997). Auto-confiança, ansiedade e rendimento na natação de alta competição: Estudo com os atletas de elite nacional. Psicologia: Teoria, Investigação e Prática, 2, 491-522.
Roth, S., & Cohen, L. J. (1986). Approach avoidance, and coping with stress. The American Psychologist, 41, 813-819.
Smith, R. E., Smoll, F. L., & Schutz, R. W. (1990). Measurement and correlates of sport-specific cognitive and somatic trait anxiety: The Sport Anxiety Scale. Anxiery Research, 2, 263-280.
Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (2001). Summary of findings from the 2000 National Household Survey on Drug Abuse. Office of Applied Studies, NHSDA Series H-13, DHHS Publication No. (SMA) 01-3549. Rockville, Md, USA.